Psychology Coursework

Psychology Coursework Psychology Coursework Psychology Coursework. What Do The Students Expect? Students, who want to unite their lives with psychology in the future must get a masters degree on this subject, therefore they should obtain psychology courses and write a psychology coursework: After the graduation they can work as doctors, teachers and have other occupation which is connected with peoples psychology. Their career depends on the doing their psychology courseworkproperly, so it is an important step in their education and it should be treated corresponding. There are different types of the assignments which can be done by the student for the obtaining the psychology degree. Format For Psychological Coursework A psychology courseworkcan be written in the form of essay, dissertation, term paper and other study assignments. As it must cover a plenty of literature material, so the demonstration by the students of their talent of disposing facts and analyzing material should be on the high level If the practical part is present, the student should observe the actions and the results of the experiments and then to put down these clinical observations in the form of the report to their psychology coursework And the students should remember that any theoretical statements should be supported by the hands-on experiment If the student is insuch a level of education that there is a turn for the dissertation, so it should be done perfectly and have much efforts for the better understanding of the problem. The student should be deeply absorbed in the issued problem and the practical part is a must-be requirement here. But it is not the only thing which is the element of the dissertation or extended psychology coursework. The students are expected to show view of other scholars and make a conclusion, which study is more appropriate for the demonstration of the solution to the problem or to the hide question within the topic of the assignment. There is another one type of the psychology coursework, which can be called as case study, when a student should do a research basing on the profile of the patient of a group of them. There must be a lot of arguments and the psychological ability of patients should be observed in the different situations. Their behavior, their justifying of the done actions should be considered also. Then a student can offer a suggestion how the mental problem or life conditions could be improved and the danger of the mental illnesses can be avoided. Areas Of Psychology There some areas of psychology, which can be observed by students, they are: Abnormal psychology Applied psychology Behavioral psychology Child psychology Clinical psychology Developmental psychology Educational psychology Experimental psychology general psychology Gestalt psychology Social psychology. So if you are not sure in the efforts, so you can entrust the writing to our writing service. We should notice that no customer had any complaint about our service. Our experts can perform any order concerning any topic or form of the assignment. Good luck to you and be happy with us! Related posts: Informative Essay Writing How to Write a Good College Essay? Essay about Bosnia College Essay Online College Essay Help

Brief History of Cod Fishing

Brief History of Cod Fishing The cods importance to American history is undeniable. It was cod that attracted Europeans to North America for short-term fishing trips and eventually enticed them to stay. The cod became one of the most sought-after fish in the North Atlantic, and it was its popularity that caused its enormous decline and the precarious situation today. Native Americans Long before Europeans arrived and discovered America, Native Americans fished along its shores, using hooks they made from bones and nets made from natural fibers. Cod bones such as otoliths (an ear bone) are plentiful in Native American middens, indicating they were an important part of the Native American diet. Earliest Europeans The Vikings and Basques were some of the first Europeans to travel to the coast of North America and harvest and cure cod. Cod was dried until it was hard, or cured using salt so that it was preserved for a long period of time. Eventually, explorers such as Columbus and Cabot discovered the New World. Descriptions of the fish indicate that cod were as big as men, and some say that fishermen could scoop the fish out of the sea in baskets. Europeans concentrated their cod fishing efforts in Iceland for awhile, but as conflicts grew, they began fishing along the coast of Newfoundland and what is now New England. Pilgrims and Cod In the early 1600s, John Smith charted out New England. When determining where to flee, the Pilgrims studied Smiths map and were intrigued by the label Cape Cod. They were determined to profit from fishing, although according to Mark Kurlansky, in his book Cod: a Biography of the Fish That Changed the World, they knew nothing about fishing, (p. 68) and while the Pilgrims were starving in 1621, there were British ships filling their holds with fish off the New England coast. Believing they would receive blessings if they took pity on the Pilgrims and assisted them, the local Native Americans showed them how to catch cod and use the parts not eaten as fertilizer. They also introduced the Pilgrims to quahogs, steamers, and lobster, which they eventually ate in desperation. Negotiations with the Native Americans led to our modern-day celebration of Thanksgiving, which would not have occurred if the Pilgrims did not sustain their stomachs and farms with cod. The Pilgrims eventually established fishing stations in Gloucester, Salem, Dorchester, and Marblehead, Massachusetts, and Penobscot Bay, in what is now Maine. Cod was caught using handlines, with larger vessels sailing out to fishing grounds and then sending two men in dories to drop a line in the water. When a cod was caught, it was pulled up by hand. Triangle Trade Fish were cured by drying and salting and marketed in Europe. Then a triangle trade developed that linked  cod to slavery and rum. High-quality cod was sold in Europe, with the colonists purchased European wine, fruit and other products. Then traders then went to the Caribbean, where they sold a low-end cod product called West India cure to feed the burgeoning slave population, and bought sugar, molasses (used to make rum in the colonies), cotton, tobacco, and salt. Eventually, New Englanders also transported slaves to the Caribbean. Cod fishing continued and made the colonies prosperous. Modernization of Fishing In the 1920s-1930s, more sophisticated and effective methods, such as gillnets and draggers were used. Commercial cod catches increased throughout the 1950s. Fish processing techniques also expanded. Freezing techniques and filleting machinery eventually led to the development of fish sticks, marketed as a healthy convenience food. Factory ships started catching fish and freezing it out at sea. Fishing Collapse Technology improved and fishing grounds became more competitive. In the U.S., the Magnuson Act of 1976 prohibited foreign fisheries from entering the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - 200 miles around the U.S. With the absence of foreign fleets, the optimistic U.S. fleet expanded, causing a greater decline in fisheries. Today, New England cod fishermen face strict regulations on their catch. Cod Today The commercial cod catch has decreased greatly since the 1990s due to strict regulations on cod fishing. This has led to an increase in cod populations. According to NMFS, cod stocks on Georges Bank and the Gulf of Maine are rebuilding to target levels, and the Gulf of Maine stock is no longer considered overfished. Still, the cod you eat in seafood restaurants may no longer be Atlantic cod, and fishsticks are now more commonly made of other fish such as pollock. Sources CC Today. 2008. Deconstructing Thanksgiving: A Native American View. (Online). Cape Cod Today. Accessed November 23, 2009. Kurlansky, Mark. 1997. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. Walker and Company, New York. Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Brief History of the Groundfishing Industry of New England (Online). Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Accessed November 23, 2009.

Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Obesity - Essay Example This paper seeks to discuss the definition and measurement of obesity, the current state of obesity among high school students, the causes, and the possible measures that can be taken to address the issue. The nature of obesity makes it difficult to clearly define the condition. However, most researchers define obesity as the presence of excessive fat in the body that is characterized by the presence of adipose tissue. Using the above definition, presence of 30% fat in females was considered as obese while for males, presence of 25% fat in the body was considered obese. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is the most common tool used to measure obesity. The BMI is the ratio of an individual’s weight in kilograms to the square of their height in meters. The BMI percentiles are used together with a growth chart to assess levels of obesity among various age groups. Currently, the rate of obesity among high school students stands at 13.7% while the number of overweight students is 16.6% of the total population of high school students in the US. On the boys’ category, the rate of obesity among white American students stands at 16.5%. The rate is slightly higher among Latin American students whose figure stands at 19.0%. However, this rate for African American students with this group’s figure recorded as 14.8%. On the girls’ category, 9.7% of white American students are obese while the figure for Latin American students increases slightly and is recorded at 11.4%. African American students at 16.7% recorded the highest rate of obesity for this category. According to these statistics, African American girls have the highest rate of obesity among high school students white American girls have the lowest rate. Latin American boys have the highest rate among boys. The above statistics indicate that obesity is most prevalent among African American students. White Americans have the smallest rate of

The Accountability Strategy read chapter 8 Article

The Accountability Strategy read chapter 8 - Article Example To measure activities used in teaching mathematics in a school, the most important measure involves imparting new skills thus the need to evaluate the learning resources applied by the teacher. There is also need to assess the amount of time spent in effective instruction and the means used. For example hands-on learning is more effective, thus by this assessment, activities can be measured. In measuring output, keys aspects to look into entail, attendance can be used as a measure since high attendance of the lesson indicates interest, while the outcomes can be measured against the objectives of the lesson, which in this case would be application question in a test depicting real life events. This is particularly possible in algebra lessons, which are both abstract and applicable. Therefore, effectiveness can be measured using the amount of time spent teaching and this can then be put against the goals and objectives. More time with poor results indicate low efficiency, while less time and better results indicates otherwise. Collection of information about efficiency, output, outcome and activities can be obtained from official records since all teachers are required to keep records of the work they have taught. As such, this makes it easy to obtain information unless the data is confidential, as is the case with test scores. If the names of students are not required, then the acquisition of this data becomes fairly easy. Collection of data is meant to evaluate effectiveness of methods of teaching and the resources allocated to the teacher, as well as the time taken to teach (Berman, 2006 pg. 150). As a result, the most important aspect of the data is in the learning outcomes, where learning outcomes take centre stage. This affects the choice of performance measure in that the outcome has to be reflected on most in spite of the purposes overlapping. The difference between accomplishments and activities is narrow as there is

Bisleri Company Profile

Bisleri Company Profile According to a report by Ikon, a marketing consulting company, the packaged water industry is estimated at Rs.8000 crore currently and is expected to touch Rs.10000 crore by the end of the fiscal 2012-13. It may also touch the Rs.15000 crore mark by 2015, according to the report. The industry has seen a compound annual growth rate of about 19%. Parles Bisleri has the highest market share of about 36%, followed by Coca-colas Kinley which has a market share of about 25% , followed by Aquafina which has a market share of about 15%. Indias percapita consumption is about 30 litres which is less than the global average of 40 litres. In India, South India tops the consumption followed by Western India which is the home for all the major national packaged water brands. In the Natural water category, which is a niche segment where the brand Himalayan water has been a leader has now entered into the Indian market, after being overtaken by the Tata group. Company Profile of Bisleri : History : (1)Bisleri was originally an Italian company created Felice Bisleri, who first brought the idea of selling bottled water in India. Bisleri then was introduced inÂÂ  MumbaiÂÂ  in glass bottles in two varieties bubbly still in 1965. ParleÂÂ  bought over Bisleri (India) Ltd. in 1969 and started bottling water in glass bottles under the brand name Bisleri. Later Parle switched over to PVC non-returnable bottles finally advanced to PET containers. In 1995 Ramesh J. Chauhan started expanding Bisleri operations. In 2003 Bisleri announced its venture to Europe. All shares are held by Mr Ramesh J Chauhan and his family. The brand name Bisleri is so popular in India that it is used as a generic nameÂÂ  for bottled water. According to the companys website, Bisleri invests 10 milion litres of rain water every year. More than just an initiative its a clear reflection of Bisleris outlook to life, whether its products, people or profitability. As one of the worlds most trusted brands, Bisleri is leading the way in bringin about positive change in our daily lives. Some initiatives involve small communities, others involve the entire population, but they are both a part of the meaningful revolution called the Aqua green revolution. Vision: (2) According to the companys website the vision of Bisleri is : The Aqua Green Revolution began with an ambitious dream: An India in which every person has uninterrupted access to scientifically purified and fortified drinking water, irrespective of geographical barriers or economic limitations. Product: Besides Mineral water, Bisleri also produces Bisleri Soda and Bisleri Vedica Natural Spring water. The purification process of Bisleri mineral water involves a six-stage purification process. In the first stage, the ground water is ozonized to destroy the virus and bacteria. The next step involves purification by sand filter which removes coarse particles up to 30 microns in size. A carbon filter is then used to remove color and odor, followed by Reverse Osmosis to filter harmful minerals and salts. The following step involves fortification of water with minerals. Finally the water is ozonized once more to ensure zero-contamination during packaging and storing. Bisleri with added minerals is available in 250 ml, 500 ml, 1 litre and 2 litre bottles and 5 litre, 15 litre and 20 litre jars. Price: Product No.of Bottles in case MRP/Case 250 ml 24 144 500 ml 20 200 1 litre 12 180 2 litre 9 225 5 litre 1 35 15 litre 1 60 20 litre 1 80 Promotion : Bisleri is promoted through TV and print media aggressively. Every opportunity to interact with the customer is used to promote the product. For example, all the vehicles used for supply are painted in green, bearing the BISLERI logo and slogans like Drink and Drive. In 2008, competing with the other brands in the mountain water category, the brand adopted a tv commercial that reflected spirituality, carrying the tagline The sweet taste of purity. The company has also started a new campaign called Stay Protected which is an extension of their own earlier Play Safe and the television commercial concentrated a bit more on the protection aspect. Distribution: Bisleri currently has 25 bottling units and about 5000 vehicles for distribution. Throughout the country, Bisleri has about 3,50,000 retail outlets. Manufacturing operations are done in 18 places in India. For the 20 litre jar, the company has introduced a home delivery system which is done by a specialized distribution system. Bisleri distributes in 3 phases : Direct distribution through roadways Through Local distributors to retail outlets. Home delivery with the help of small depots inside cities. Company Profile of Aquafina : History: Aquafina is a bottled water brand owned by PepsiCo. Aquafina was first launched in Wichita, Kansas, USA in 1994. It started distributing nationally throughout America by 1997. It started operating in India from 1999 starting from the city of Bombay and nationally throughout India in 2000. As of the year 2007, it became Americas biggest selling bottled water brand by sales volume. Product : Aquafina adopts a process called Hydro-7 process which is a seven stage purification process. The water is originated from the public sources and it undergoes reverse osmosis followed by underground and ozone sterilization. It removes impurities like chlorides, salts and other substances that affect the waters taste. Aquafina also claims that its bottles are 100% recyclable. Aquafina also meets the stringent national and international standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). In addition to bottled drinking water, Aquafina also has a range of different products like Aquafinaflavorsplash which is flavored drinking water, Aquafina Sparkling which is carbonated water. However the production of Aquafina Sparkling was discontinued in 2010 in the US. Health conscious products like Aquafina Alive and Aquafinaplus+ are also produced by Aquafina which are low calorie and vitamin enhanced products. Price : Product Price(INR) 300 ml 5 500 ml 8 1 litre 12 2 litres 25 25 litres 260 Promotion : Aquafina has started advertising in a new way by launching What a body campaign. It helped the brand reach out to different market segments. Through Aquafina, Pepsico has started water conservation initiatives and creating awareness about Pepsicos efforts to conserve water. Aquafina promoted the brand through tv commercials, by using catchy slogans like Purest part of you. It also entered into tie-ups with the Railways and other public places like Departmental stores, Multiplexes etc. thereby promoting the brand aggressively. Distribution : Throughout India, Aquafina has about 19 bottling plants. Aquafina bottled water is available in all the parts of the country with about more than half a million outlets selling the brand. Company profile of Kinley History : Cocac-cola introduced Kinley into the bottled water market in August 2000.Bisleri, which was already a leader in the market of purified mineral water, had a market share of greater than 60% and the term Bisleri was being used as a generic term for mineral water. Kinley established around 20 water plants throughout the country and was in the process of setting up 15 more water plants within the next one year. The situation at the time when Kinley forayed into the bottled water market can be examined with the help of 5C approach. Company : Coca-Cola already enjoyed a strong brand image in the market with the likes of soft drinks like Coca-Cola, Limca, Thums up etc. It also had strong supply and distribution channels. Competition : Coca-Colas major competitor at the time of its entry into the bottled water market was Parle. With a growth rate of about 40% for 10 years, Parles Bisleri earned the faith and the loyalty of the customers in provide safe and pure drinking water. Category : At the time of starting its operations, three categories were much popular in the bottled water market. Pouches were popular in rural areas because of their easy availability and also the price concerns. The bottles of 500 ml to 1 litre were being sold in all kinds of retail outlets. There was also a huge demand for bulk quantities ( of about 20 litres ) in the households as well as the corporate. Context : Because of the scarcity of water in most parts of the country and also the increasing health consciousness among the people of India, the number of people moving towards mineral water is increasing. Collaboration : Since Coca-Cola has a well managed distribution system, it collaborated with restaurants, supermarkets etc. and distributing its products across a variety of retail outlets. Under these circumstances, Coca-Cola launched Kinley, first across a variety of Southern metros and later it spread to all other places nationally. Positioning : The brand Coca-Cola already enjoyed a trustworthy position in the Indian market and it also had an efficient distribution system. Under the initiative of Boondh Boondh mein Vishwas it portrayed itself as a brand of trust and purity. The company stood on the belief that The right to pure, safe drinking water is fundamental. Product : In 2000, 500 ml pack was launched. This was followed by 1 litre, 1.5 litre, 2 litres, 5 litres, 20 litres and 25 litres by 2002. Targeting parties and special occasions, Kinley introduced 200 ml cups. Also, the 200 ml pouches were available to cater the needs of the rural areas where price is an important concern. Reverse osmosis and latest technology is used in the purification of water. The company also started easy to hold bottles in 2008. Price : Product Price 200 ml (pouch) Re.1 200 ml (water cup) Rs.3 500 ml Rs.5 (in Delhi) Rs.8 (Rest of India) 1 litre Rs.10 Place : Kinley was first available in the Southern Metros and then the company started distributing them nationally. The 200 ml water cups were made available in Chennai and Gujarat before introducing them across the country. The 200 ml pouches were first tested in selected areas of Gujarat before marketing them across India. Promotion : Kinley launched the campaign Boondh Boodh mein vishwas. In the words of Coca-Cola, Kinley brand personifies trust which is a key attribute in the packaged drinking water segment. Our product attribute matched with the brand positioning is a key reason that the brand has done so well in market despite aggressive and low price competitors. Kinley started a new campaign Vishwas Karo in 2009. Kinley beat Bisleri in 2002 in retail segment ( 500 ml to 2 litres) where Bisleri continued to be the leader for about two decades. It held a market share of about 35.1% while Bisleri held the second position with a market share of about 34.4%. Currently, while Bisleri enjoys to be the number one brand in both retail and bulk markets, Kinley holds the second position. Company Profile of Himalayan bottled water History : In 2008, Tata took over Himalayan bottled water, a product of Mount Everest Mineral Water to cater to the needs of urban and health conscious market. The company maintains that the water is unprocessed and untouched and is straight away packed from the natural resource. In the words of the CEO, Pradeep Poddar of Mount Everest Mineral water, The launch would be our first transformative step in actualizing our vision of creating next generation beverages with water on the platform of wellness, starting with natural mineral water. In future, we would be straddling the entire consumer pyramid with breakthrough, functional and nutritionally enhanced offerings, making this an exhilarating journey in our quest to make water truly the elixir of life. Strategic Planning: The TATA group forayed into the mineral water industry by acquiring a stake of about 32 percent in Mount Everest Mineral Water which is actually a good move as they got hold of a brand thats already existing in the market and by getting hold of such a large stake, it gets control of majority of the decision making processes of the company. Himalayan is internationally accredited by the US FDA, the European Union, the health ministries of Japan and France. It is a ISO 9001:2000 company that is the only Indian brand of mineral water that is internationally accepted. Segmentation : Based on the type of bottled water, this category is segmented into 1.Natural Mineral Water directly packaged from the source and unprocessed and 2.Ordinary Mineral Water this segment involves treatment with chemicals before packaging. TATA is the leader in the Natural mineral water category. Before acquisition bey TATA, the Himalayan water used to cater to the institutional and the international customers. Targeting : The target for Himalayan water included the following segments Institutional customers and the customers willing to pay a premium. The institutional customers include multiplexes, restaurants, airlines, corporate companies etc. The other segment includes those people who are ready to pay a cost higher than the others. The company mainly targeted those who will be ready to pay Rs.25 for a bottle of water. Positioning : With TATA taking over the brand, Himalayan mineral water got a boost in India as TATA is a trusted brand. The television commercials in the ads used the statement : Go back to the nature untouched, unprocessed pristine water from the Himalayas that took 20 years gathering natures goodness for you. With a slogan Live Natural. The USP of Himalayan mineral water is that it is unprocessed and it is packaged straight from the natural source. Product : Himalayan Natural water is available in 200 ml, 500 ml, 750 ml, 1 litre, 1.5 litres and 2 litre bottles. The bottle design was created by Rediffusion DYR , actualized by SIPA, Italy. The water is collected after it flows through clay, stones and river streams collecting different types of minerals with it for about 20 years. The company plans to introduce new variants of the product keeping in mind the different market segments. Price : The 750 ml water bottles were priced at around Rs.250 for the corporate and the multiplex segments while it was Rs.18 for the retail segment. Though the price is much higher than the other mineral water products of other companies which cost around Rs.10-15, it is highly competitive when compared with its competitors in the natural water segment Eviane by Danone and Perrier by Nestle since it is priced at a rate 1/4th cheaper than the others in the premium natural water market. Place : The plant is primary located in the Daula Kuan Region of Sirmour District of Himachal Pradesh. The company has plans to expand with the help of distributors in various parts of the country. Initially, it made use of its already existing and large distribution network of TATA tea. Himalayan water started being distributed in as many as 19500 Tata tea retail outlets as well as other retail shops through the help of the large distribution network of Tata tea. The company started distributed Himalayan water across the country in all the metro cities and also in places like Goa, Pune, Cochin which attract a fair amount of tourists. The company also entered into a joint venture with Pepsico., which is already a leading company in liquid company so as to leverage its distribution and marketing, thereby establishing Himalayan brand as a leader in Natural water. According to the companys website, Himalayan natural mineral waters clientele includes luxury hotel chains like The Taj, The Oberoi , Marriott, InterContinental; premium airlines like Jet Airways; leading multiplexes such as Adlabs; fine dining restaurants like Zodiac Grill, China Gate, Golden Dragon, Indiana Jones, and Frangipani among others. Promotion : The promotional campaign was handled by Rediffusion DYR with a television commercial that had a slogan Live Natural emphasizing the USP of Himalayan Natural water. The Brand is advertised focusing on the fact that the water has been untouched or unprocessed straight from the natural source, where the water has been flowing across river streams acquiring minerals, for about 20 years. In the words of Abanti Sankaranarayanan, executive director of Mount Everest Mineral Water, The launch marks the beginning of an exciting journey aimed at redefining the entire category of bottled water. We have a unique proposition of hydration with wellness, which will embrace all brand offerings in future. The brand communication is designed to narrate the mysticism of Himalayan to evoke an intimate tone with the consumer. The packaging is contemporary and aspirational and conveys the style quotient of the new Himalayan natural mineral water,

How Is Discrimination Different from Prejudice and Stereotyping? Essay

Part I Define the following terms: |Term |Definition | |Discrimination |The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice | | |or for other arbitrary reasons | |Institutional discrimination |A denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals or groups, resulting from the | | |normal operations of a society | | | | |Political correctness |Language or behaviors that does not offend particular groups of people | Part II Write a 150- to 250-word response to each of the following questions: †¢ How is discrimination different from prejudice and stereotyping? Discrimination differs from prejudice and stereotyping in a way that discrimination isn’t just an negative attitude that rejects an entire group, as prejudice is defined. Discrimination is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons. Prejudice does not necessarily end with wealth. Discrimination also has cumulative effect so that people today are victims of past and current differential practices. As whereas stereotyping is unreliable generalizations about all members of a particular group without considering a individuals differences. I feel that discrimination has many forms aside from race, also age, sexual orientation or wealth. Discrimination can hinder a person from advancing in their life, which will affect their generations. I feel that a person can beat a stereotype, at times it may not be as severe, but when you deny someone or a group equal rights, it because a legal process. Stereotyping can be proved to be wrong, but with discrimination you can not prove it otherwise false, if your denied rights. †¢ What are the causes of discrimination? The causes of discrimination are having a certain preference for different groups of people. In example, preferring a man over a woman to be a president of a company, even though they are both qualified the same. Being misinformed also causes discrimination. Often, racism and prejudice cause discrimination. When an negative attitude is formed over a certain group of people, mainly the minority group. They face a social challenge, which leads to adding a denial of certain rights to a person. Although, discrimination is illegal, it happens often. Family type business, who can hire freely can cause a type of discrimination. They have the choice to hire family, verses someone who is an outsider. Often discrimination is from our ancestors. If they had a certain way of living, it is passed on through generation. Often, we feel like we are better than a certain group, or that a certain group may owe us something because of our ancestors. †¢ How is discrimination faced by one identity group (race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability) the same as discrimination faced by another? How are they different? Discrimination towards a certain race, is the same as being discriminated by you gender. We cannot change the color of our skin, nor can we change our gender. Being discriminated by your race, and by religious beliefs can be different is many ways. If a person was applying for a job, and was denied the job because being discriminated by their race, or religious beliefs, a person’s skin color is obvious. But, a person could change their religious beliefs to bend for whatever position they are applying for. Discrimination can begin at birth. Identity groups can change, which changes the discrimination factors. You can change your hair color, or have a surgery to change your appearance to differ ante your age. Someone with a disability cannot just make a disability disappear. A certain sexual orientation can change around to date the opposite sex to be more socially accepted. I think it can differ greatly. Reference: Racial and Ethnic Groups, Thirteenth edition, by Richard T. Schaefer. Published by Merrill Prentice Hall. Copyright  © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Post-Processual Archaeology - What is Culture Anyway

Post-processual archaeology was a scientific movement in archaeological science that took place in the 1980s, and it was explicitly a critical reaction to the limitations of the previous movement, the 1960s processual archaeology. In brief, processual archaeology strictly used the scientific method to identify the environmental factors that influenced past human behaviors. After two decades, many archaeologists who had practiced processual archaeology, or had been taught it during their formative years, recognized that processual archaeology failed when it attempted to explain variability in past human behavior. The post-processualists rejected the deterministic arguments and logical positivist methods as being too limited to encompass the wide variety of human motivations. A Radical Critique Most particularly, the radical critique, as post-processualism was characterized in the 1980s, rejected the positivist search for general laws that govern behavior. Instead, practitioners suggested that archaeologists pay more attention to symbolic, structural, and Marxist perspectives. The symbolic and structural post-processualist archaeology had its birth primarily in England with the scholar Ian Hodder: some scholars such as Zbigniew Kobylinski and colleagues referred to it as the Cambridge school. In texts such as Symbols in Action, Hodder argued that the word culture had become almost embarrassing to the positivists who were ignoring that facts that although material culture might reflect environmental adaptation, it also might reflect social variability. The functional, adaptive prism that the positivists used blinded them to the glaring blank spots in their research. The post-processualists said culture couldnt be reduced down to a set of outside forces like environmental change, but rather operates as a multi-varied organic response to everyday realities. Those realities are made up of a multitude of political, economic, and social forces that are, or at least seemed to be, specific to a specific group in a specific time and situation, and were nowhere near as predictable as the processualists assumed. Symbols and Symbolism At the same time, the post-processualist movement saw an incredible blossoming of ideas some of which were aligned with social deconstruction and post-modernism and grew out of the civil unrest in the west during the Vietnam war. Some archaeologists viewed the archaeological record as a text which needed to be decoded. Others focused on Marxist concerns about the relations of power and domination, not just in the archaeological record but in the archaeologist him or herself. Who should be able to tell the story of the past? Underlying all of that was also a movement to challenge the authority of the archaeologist and focus on identifying the biases which grew out of his or her gender or ethnic make-up. One of the beneficial outgrowths of the movement, then, was towards creating a more inclusive archaeology, an increase in the number of indigenous archaeologists in the world, as well as women, the LGBT community, and local and descendant communities. All of these brought a diversity of new considerations into a science that had been dominated by white, privileged, western outsider males. Critiques of the Critique The stunning breadth of ideas, however, became a problem. American archaeologists Timothy Earle and Robert Preucel argued that radical archaeology, without a focus on research methodology, was going nowhere. They called for a new behavioral archaeology, a method that combined the processual approach committed to explaining cultural evolution, but with a renewed focus on the individual. American archaeologist Alison Wylie said that post-processual ethnoarchaeology had to learn to combine the methodological excellence of the processualists with the ambition to explore how people in the past engaged with their material culture. And American Randall McGuire warned against post-processual archaeologists picking and choosing snippets from a wide range of social theories without developing a coherent, logically consistent theory. The Costs and Benefits The issues that were unearthed during the height of the post-processual movement are still not resolved, and few archaeologists would consider themselves post-processualists today. However, one outgrowth was the recognition that archaeology is a discipline that can use a contextual approach based on ethnographic studies to analyze sets of artifacts or symbols and look for evidence of belief systems. Objects may not simply be the residues of behavior, but instead, may have had a symbolic importance that archaeology can at least work at getting. And secondly, the emphasis on objectivity, or rather the recognition of subjectivity, has not subsided. Today archaeologists still think about and explain why they chose a specific method; create multiple sets of hypotheses to make sure they arent being fooled by a pattern; and if possible, try to find a social relevance. After all, what is science if its not applicable to the real world? Selected Sources Earle, Timothy K., et al. Processual Archaeology and the Radical Critique [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology 28.4 (1987): 501–38. Print.Engelstad, Ericka. Images of Power and Contradiction: Feminist Theory and Post-Processual Archaeology. Antiquity 65.248 (1991): 502-14. Print.Fewster, Kathryn J. The Potential of Analogy in Post-Processual Archaeologies: A Case Study from Basimane Ward, Serowe, Botswana. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 12.1 (2006): 61–87. Print.Fleming, Andrew. Post-Processual Landscape Archaeology: A Critique. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 16.3 (2006): 267-80. Print.Kobylinski, Zbigniew, Jose Luis Lanata, and Hugo Daniel Yacobaccio. On Processual Archaeology and the Radical Critique. Current Anthropology 28.5 (1987): 680–82. Print.Mizoguchi, Koji. A Future of Archaeology. Antiquity 89.343 (2015): 12-22. Print.Patterson, Thomas C. History and the Post-Processual Archaeologies. Man 24.4 (1989): 555–66. Prin t.Wylie, Alison. The Reaction against Analogy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 8 (1985): 63–111. Print.Yoffee, Norman and Andrew Sherratt. Archaeological Theory: Who Sets the Agenda? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Yu, Pei-Lin, Matthew Schmader, and James G. Enloe. I’m the Oldest New Archaeologist in Town: The Intellectual Evolution of Lewis R. Binford. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 38 (2015): 2–7. Print.